Many theories about conflict management and conflict exist. You can have many different perspectives on conflict, conflict management, and conflict resolution – meaning you can view these topics with different “glasses”, through different “lenses.”
In this article, we will look at conflict and conflict management through the lens of various scientific disciplines and topics. We have selected different theoretical perspectives or “lenses” typically used to examine conflict.
Below is a presentation of the different disciplines and topics we will explore in this article. Under each topic, you will also find references with links to important figures in the field, should you wish to delve deeper.
If you are on this page because you are looking for a specific approach to or theory about conflict management and conflict, you can simply click on one of the links below, and you will be taken directly to the relevant section.
Of course, you are also welcome to just continue reading to get a more comprehensive theoretical overview – it is quite fascinating how many different angles one can take on conflicts and conflict management:
– Psychology
– Sociology and anthropology
– Biology
– Power
– Economics
– Class struggle
– Gender studies
– Media / Media theory
– Game theory, especially cooperation theory and win-win theory
Besides this article, we also have articles about what conflict actually is, what happens when conflicts escalate, and conflict management from an overall or practical perspective.
Theories About Conflict Management and Conflict Seen through the Lens of Psychology
Theories about conflict management and conflict seen through the psychological lens examine conflict in the light of psychological factors in individuals and groups.
As many of us probably know, modern psychology began with Sigmund Freud and William James and has since gone through significant development – with transpersonal psychology being the latest branch on the tree of psychology.
Within personality psychology, there are many different perspectives and theories on conflict – which also includes inner conflict within the individual, such as cognitive dissonance.
Management Theorists on Conflict
Management theorists Jane Mouton and Robert R. Blake created a model called the “Managerial Grid Model”, which describes where a leader’s management style lies in a coordinate system between a “concern for people” and “concern for production”.
Each leadership style has its advantages, disadvantages, and risks for conflict. What is particularly interesting in this context is that the idea was further developed by others and eventually became the “Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI)” – a tool designed to assess a person’s use of five different ‘styles’ of conflict management: avoiding, competing, collaborating, compromising, and accommodating. (We review these five styles in this article on conflict management).
This tool was created by Kenneth Thomas and Ralph Kilmann (Wikipedia page here).
Emotions and Conflict
The psychologist Daniel Goleman is known for his research on emotional intelligence and its significance in handling interpersonal conflicts. His most well-known book is Emotional Intelligence.
The social psychologist Roy Frederick Baumeister is known for his work on various themes, including free will, decision-making, consciousness, self-control, the need to belong and social rejection, self-esteem, human sexuality and gender differences, as well as irrational, destructive, and self-destructive behavior. Some of this research provides important insights into individual behavior in conflict situations.
Isn’t It Possible to Learn Not to Create Conflict and Just Be Happy?
Psychologist Richard Davidson advocates for consciously working with your mind. For example, based on research in neuroplasticity (the brain’s ability to change through learning), he believes that happiness and compassion are skills that can be learned and cultivated – just like other skills.
He suggests that being happy and peaceful (i.e., non-conflictual) is very much like learning to play a musical instrument.
Conflicts in Relationships
John Gottman, also a psychologist, is renowned for his work in the field of relationships, marriage, and communication within couples.
He has identified what he calls the “Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse“: 1. Criticism, 2. Defensiveness, 3. Contempt, and 4. Stonewalling.
He describes these ‘Horsemen’ as ineffective communication styles that directly contribute to conflict and the dissolution of relationships. Gottman’s work forms a significant part of the foundation for modern couples therapy.
A Broader Perspective
Finally, we can mention Steven Pinker, a researcher and author who takes a broader perspective. He has written the book “The Better Angels of Our Nature”, where he points out that violence in human societies has generally declined over time.
He identifies six major trends and five historical forces contributing to this positive decline, including the Age of Enlightenment, and its clear emphasis on reason, science, and humanism.
Theories about Conflict Management and Conflict Seen Through the Lens of Sociology and Anthropology
Theories about conflict management and conflict seen through the disciplines of sociology and anthropology examine conflict in the light of social structures and their power dynamics, ethnic minorities, culture, norms, traditions, etc.
Anthropologists’ View on Conflict
Anthropologists often examine conflict through the lens of cultural differences, including various values and norms. For example, as described by Clifford Geertz (Wikipedia page here).
Anthropologist William Ury has written several books on conflict management and conflict resolution, one of which is a major modern classic in these fields, namely ‘Getting to Yes’, co-authored with law professor Roger Fisher, who has also written several books on conflicts and their management and resolution.
Although it is an older book (1981), it has been revised and updated several times, with the new editions remaining quite modern and relevant. It being a classic, let’s briefly review the main points of the method here.
Fisher’s and Ury’s Method for Negotiation and Conflict Resolution
Fisher’s and Ury’s theory of conflict management is known as one of the classic negotiation methods for conflict resolution, and is based on four (or five) key points, each focusing on an effective approach to fundamental elements of negotiation. Although it’s not an official point, we will include a fifth point which Ury and Fisher describe as important. We will call this point, point zero:
0. If possible, agree on the procedure for negotiation: This includes the ‘rules of the game’ regarding time, place, communication, goals, etc. Face-to-face meetings are almost always better than written negotiations. Regarding goals, agree that the objective is not to “win” over each other but to find a result that is good for everyone.
1. Separate people from the problem. Focus on the problem.
2. Focus on interests and needs, not on (fixed) positions (e.g., roles, quantities, money, etc.). It’s about meeting needs, not about winning.
3. Brainstorm (both alone and with the opponent) and create several new options that benefit both parties before making a decision.
4. Insist that the outcome should be based on and measurable by objective criteria, i.e., some objective standard.
Ury and Fisher have three additions that fall into the category “Yes, but what if?”
A. What if the other party is more powerful?
Power imbalances are a real issue, and the weaker party naturally wants to protect himself / herself from a bad deal. The typical approach people (the weaker party) take is to set a “bottom line” in advance, i.e., the minimum acceptable outcome, such as $5.500. However …
Ury and Fisher point out that this is precisely a fixed position (which is detrimental to negotiations) and add that “The reason you negotiate is to produce something better than the results you can obtain without negotiating.” Therefore, they suggest that the weaker party should instead focus on assessing what their best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA) is.
In other words: What can you get if it does not involve the other party? That should be your “bottom line”, and any negotiation options with the other party that do not achieve that or better should be rejected. In this way, you make yourself as flexible as possible and are therefore better equipped to conduct constructive negotiations.
B. What if the other party won’t “play along”?
This means the other party refuses to follow the rules, insists on fixed positions, and approaches the negotiation to “win.”
Here, Ury and Fisher recommend that you initially continue to use the four points yourself.
If this does not work, they suggest using “negotiation ju-jutsu” (ju-jutsu is a martial art technique where you do not attack and do not use your own strength but use the opponent’s weight and strength against them).
For example, you can continue to ask why the opponent is doing what he / she is doing, what he / she hopes to achieve with it, and keep focusing on the problem when the opponent focuses on people.
If that also does not help, you can ultimately involve a neutral third party who makes lists of the parties’ demands, goals, and needs until it is clear what each party wants and why.
C. What if the other party uses dirty tricks?
Dirty tricks can include: Lies (about power, intentions, goals, facts in general, etc.), threats, attempts to stress the opponent, refusal to negotiate, extreme demands, involvement of biased third parties, and more.
The simple solution to dirty tricks is to make them clear, for example by asking for objective (preferably written) verification of claims, etc., and then simply negotiate about the use of the dirty tricks – using the four points for this negotiation.
Interested parties who want to know a bit more than the above but do not have the time to read the book can read a brief summary here.
Sociologists’ View on Conflict
The sociological approach to conflict theory and conflict management focuses on the impact of social factors, including culture, class, race, gender, and power dynamics, on conflict. What might be called conflict sociology is concerned with how societal structures, institutions, culture, and norms shape human interactions, tensions, conflicts, and conflict resolution.
A notable early sociological approach to conflict came from Ludwig Gumplowicz (Wikipedia page here), who is often seen as a pioneer in sociological conflict research.
David Émile Durkheim, considered one of the founders of sociology, focused on the integration of individuals into society, providing fundamental insights into the role of social bonds in conflict.
Pierre Bourdieu also examined (among many other things) how social structures shape individual behavior and conflicts.
Social psychologist Henri Tajfel looked even more specifically at conflict in terms of social identity.
Erving Goffman was a highly influential sociologist, social psychologist, and author. He used knowledge from fiction, theater, and performance art (through dramaturgical analysis) to explore how we construct our “self” (i.e., our relative identity) and interact with each other (communication and so-called symbolic interaction). This new approach provided insights that can also be applied to understanding conflicts.
Lastly, but certainly not least, sociologist Randall Collins has focused both on macrohistorical sociology (on political and economic changes) and microsociology (e.g., face-to-face interaction), particularly regarding intellectual and social conflicts. His current research involves macro patterns of violence, including contemporary warfare, and solutions to police violence.
Someone Unique: Johan Galtung
Lastly, in connection with conflict management theory from a sociological perspective, we have to mention the Norwegian sociologist, mathematician, and professor specializing in peace and conflict resolution Johan Galtung.
He can be considered quite exceptional: a person who, since he was a young boy of 12 and witnessed his father being taken by the invading Nazi Germans, has devoted his entire long life to conflict resolution and peace … And he has been extremely active!
In his career, Galtung has written over 100 books and more than 1,000 articles, some of which can be seen here. Furthermore, he has taught at universities around the world. Beyond that, he can be credited with having single-handedly established peace studies programs in many places globally and has initiated a range of ongoing projects:
In 1959, he founded the Peace Research Institute Oslo, and in 1964, he established the academic journal ‘Journal of Peace Research’ (which can be read here) as well as the international research network ‘International Peace Research Association’.
In 1975, he received his first honorary doctorate, and since then, he has received an additional 12 honorary doctorates!
In 1987, Johan Galtung received the ‘Right Livelihood Award’, also known as the “Alternative Nobel Prize,” which was established in 1980 after an unsuccessful attempt to persuade the Nobel Foundation to award Nobel Prizes in the fields of environmental protection, sustainable development, and human rights.
In 1993, he also founded ‘TRANSCEND: A Peace Development Environment Network’, which includes the world’s first online peace university, mediation services for conflicts, solutions-oriented journalism (also known as constructive journalism) focused on conflict resolution and peace, a Transcend YouTube channel, and a publishing house.
Galtung has defined that peace (“non-conflict”) must be characterized by the absence of any form of violence, which he believes can be defined as three interrelated types of violence, namely:
a) Direct violence, which is harm to body and mind
b) Structural violence, which is economic exploitation, inequality, and political oppression
c) Cultural violence, which are underlying values and models that legitimize a) and b)
These three areas are sometimes referred to as the “triangle of violence.”
However, Johan Galtung has also faced criticism, particularly because during the Cold War, he was reportedly more critical of the West (and of Jews / Israel) than of the communist states such as China and the Soviet Union.
Theories About Conflict Management and Conflict Seen Through a Biological Lens
Theories about conflict management and conflict seen through the biological lens examine conflict in terms of instincts, genetics, hormones, neurophysiology, evolution, and survival.
Within the group of researchers who primarily focus on the biological elements of conflict, there are several different perspectives:
Instinctive Aggression
Konrad Lorenz was a researcher who studied animals and their instinctive behaviors, including aggression. Aggression can be triggered by many factors, but hormones such as the stress hormone cortisol and the male sex hormone testosterone are examples of hormones that can promote aggression – often leading to conflict.
Conflict in the Great Apes
Frans de Waal also studied animals, particularly the great apes (primates, our very close relatives), and drew some interesting conclusions about what creates conflict or cohesion. (An interest he shares with Jane Goodall).
Are We More Like Bonobos or Chimpanzees?
Frans de Waal was also instrumental in popularizing the bonobo (sometimes called pygmy chimpanzees) known for their very non-aggressive approach towards each other, termed “Make Love – Not War” – in contrast to, for example, chimpanzees.
When two groups of chimpanzees encounter each other, the result is almost always conflict and fighting, whereas when two groups of bonobos meet, it is more likely to end in an orgy of love and sex.
As humans, we fortunately have the awareness to freely choose our approach … and honestly, doesn’t the bonobo approach sound better than the chimpanzee’s?
Genetics and Conflict
Robert Plomin has taken a genetic and psychological approach to behavior, including conflict, to explore whether genetic factors may predispose individuals to certain personality traits or behaviors that influence their tendency toward and management of conflict.
Neurology and Conflict
Neurobiologists Jaak Panksepp and David J. Anderson (Wikipedia page here) have researched the neural circuits underlying emotions, which play a significant role in conflicts.
Jaak Panksepp was also known for his research on laughter in animals.
Evolutionary Psychology and Conflict
Psychologist David M. Buss (one of the creators of the field of evolutionary psychology) has explored the evolutionary origins of human “mating strategies,” including those related to conflicts in relationships.
Evolutionary psychology, in general, examines how various types of evolutionary pressures have shaped human behavior related to competition, aggression, cooperation, and conflict resolution.
Two other evolutionary psychologists who have also researched conflict-relevant dynamics are David Sloan Wilson and his co-author E. O. Wilson (sometimes called the ‘father of biodiversity’).
They are known for the quote: “Selfishness beats altruism within groups. Altruistic groups beat selfish groups. Everything else is commentary.”
Theories About Conflict Management and Conflict Seen Through the Lens of Power
Theories about conflict management and conflict viewed through a power lens examine conflict in terms of control, hierarchies, politics, and resources, among other factors. This perspective was originally described by Niccolò Machiavelli (Wikipedia page here).
Since then, this perspective has been explored and described by scholars such as Michel Foucault (Wikipedia page here), Hannah Arendt (Wikipedia page here), Steven Lukes, and Robert Dahl.
Finally, Max Weber should be mentioned, known for his studies on bureaucracy and authority, including the power dynamics underlying many conflicts.
Theories About Conflict Management and Conflict Seen Through the Lens of Economics
Theories about conflict management and conflict viewed through the economic lens examine conflict in terms of factors such as inequality.
Topics like economic inequality and social inequality and their effects have recently been studied in a scientific and objective manner (e.g., statistically, which greatly limits politicization or ideological bias on the subject), and the conclusion is clear:
Inequality in a society is detrimental to everyone, including the wealthiest and most privileged.
This is true across many areas, from physical and mental health to conflict and political (in)stability, violence, and more.
Books on Research into Inequality
This is described in the book The Equality Effect by Danny Dorling, and in the book The Spirit Level by Kate Pickett and Richard G. Wilkinson, as well as in their next book: The Inner Level.
Researchers on Inequality
Other notable names include Joseph Stiglitz, Robert Reich, Amartya Sen, Branko Milanovic, Heather Boushey, Daron Acemoglu, and Thomas Piketty, whose most accessible book is probably A Brief History of Equality.
Interested in the Effects of Inequality? – Check Out These Resources
You can also check the website inequality.org and their interesting collection of facts or the website for Oxfam (Wikipedia page here), which is an umbrella organization for 21 different organizations focusing on inequality and poverty.
While not an economic approach per se, you can also view conflicts through the lens of complex systems, which is explored by systems scientist Peter Michael Senge.
He is especially known for his work in organizational learning (how an organization becomes smarter and more capable), where he emphasizes the importance of dialogue and communication in resolving conflicts.
Lastly, mention should be made of economist Kenneth E. Boulding. He was more of a Renaissance man (a “knowledge polymath”) than an economist, and he is actually considered one of the ‘fathers’ of modern conflict management and resolution.
Theories About Conflict Management and Conflict Seen Through the Lens of Class Struggle
Theories about conflict management and conflict seen through the lens of social classes examine conflict in the context of socio-economic classes and class struggle. This perspective was originally described by Karl Marx (Wikipedia page here).
You can also explore the work of sociologist Michael Burawoy, who works within Marxist social theory and is known as a leading advocate for expanding the boundaries of sociology to include “public sociology“.
Burawoy investigates the effects of neoliberal ideologies on labor and class conflicts.
Theories of Conflict Management and Conflict Seen Through the Lens of Gender Studies
Theories about conflict management and conflict viewed through a gender-based lens examine conflict in the context of men, women, other genders, patriarchy, matriarchy, etc., and investigates how power structures, social norms, traditional gender roles, and gender-related inequalities impact the emergence, escalation, and resolution of conflicts.
Feminism’s View on Conflict
Dominant in this field is especially feminist theory. Notable early proponents of the feminist perspective include Simone de Beauvoir. Later advocates include figures such as Gloria Steinem, Patricia Hill Collins, bell hooks (Gloria Jean Watkins), Kimberlé Crenshaw, and Judith Butler.
If My Vagina Could Talk …
It’s also worth mentioning Eve Ensler, who is particularly known for her performance “The Vagina Monologues”, which, as the title suggests, focuses on the experience of having a vagina.
Movements for Equality
Also, we must not forget recent movements such as the #MeToo movement, which has been championed by many prominent figures in various countries, including e.g. Alyssa Milano.
Theories about Conflict Management and Conflict Seen Through the Lens of Communication
Theories about conflict management and conflict seen through a communication lens examine conflict through both verbal (linguistic) and non-verbal communication (e.g., gestures, facial expressions, body language, and what might be called “energetic communication,” or in other words, what we “radiate”).
What we express, and how we express it, is not trivial:
Certain forms of communication are prone to create conflict, while others can facilitate conflict resolution.
In short: Effective communication can help (re)build trust, strengthen relationships, and in conflicts, it can be crucial for reaching reconciliation, consensus, and solutions.
Communication Styles
There are researchers who have looked into “styles” within communication, such as Friedemann Schulz von Thun, who discusses eight communication styles:
– The needy-dependent communication style
– The helpful communication style
– The selfless communication style
– The aggressive-demeaning communication style
– The self-praising communication style
– The determining-controlling communication style
– The distancing communication style
– The talkative, dramatizing communication style
These communication styles obviously yield different results, with some promoting conflict while others facilitate conflict management and resolution.
Clear Communication Helps
Similarly, both unclear and completely absent communication are typical causes of conflict, while thorough, precise, and clear communication can remove misunderstandings as well as ease and resolve conflicts.
“On the other end” of communication is the reception of messages, especially through listening. This is as crucial as the communication itself.
Active Listening
If you just “hear without listening” to your counterpart, it becomes difficult to resolve a conflict. Therefore, we talk about active listening, where you make an effort to listen and understand, as well as reflective listening, where you also repeat your counterpart’s viewpoints to make it clear that you have actually heard and understood the other’s perspectives.
Marshall Rosenberg’s Nonviolent Communication (‘Giraffe Language’)
Marshall B. Rosenberg is somewhat of an icon in the linguistic aspect of conflict management. He is known for ‘nonviolent communication’ (also known as giraffe language), an approach that promotes empathetic communication. It roughly consists of four simple steps.
These can be called: facts, feelings, needs, and requests, and they look like this:
Step 1: (What happened?, facts) You start with the facts and describe them. Avoid interpretation or mixing in feelings.
Step 2: (Feelings) You expresses what you feel / felt in the described situation.
Step 3: (Needs) You express what needs you have in this context, both met and unmet needs.
Step 4: (Request) What specific request can you make of whom to address the needs.
“Love Languages” in Relationships
Therapist and author Gary Chapman is especially known for his series of books on the five ways people express love, “The Five Love Languages.”
He points out that different people communicate their love to their partner(s) through either: 1) Praise or compliments, 2) Quality time together, 3) Gifts, 4) Acts of service (loving, helpful actions), or 5) Physical touch.
He explores how different communication styles can affect relationships and conflicts.
Other Researchers in Communication
Deborah Tannen (Wikipedia page here) is a professor, author, and expert in communication, particularly in relation to families, gender differences, and communication styles.
Julia T. Wood is also an academic and author of numerous books on communication and conflict, particularly between genders.
Finally, George Lakoff is known for his research on how we use language and its metaphors as a framework for our thinking.
He points out that we use many metaphors in language that come from conflict, combat, and war. For example, statements like: “His claims could not really be defended, the option is a double edged sword, and he won the discussion.” This illustrates how our language reflects our thinking, but conversely, can it avoid influencing the way we think?
Theories About Conflict Management and Conflict Viewed Through Media Theory
Theories about conflict management and conflict viewed through a media lens: By media, we mean things like TV, radio, newspapers, magazines, websites, social media, etc.
This “lens,” which is closely related to the “communication lens,” examines conflict in terms of how different media (often privately owned and with political interests) significantly influence public opinion by choosing specific angles, particular language (including metaphors), and creating biased narratives.
In some cases, the result bears little to no resemblance to the truth or reality, with media in countries like Russia, China, and the USA often leading the way.
Example: Fox News Used Denmark as a Scare Tactic
Many Danes probably remember the programme produced by one of the USA’s most famous and watched TV channels (Fox News) about Venezuela and Denmark (which can be seen here). This programme triggered many reactions, such as this one, this one, this one, and this one, which – at least on YouTube – was viewed by far more people than the original programme.
When Danes see their own country described in such a way on such a well-known and widely viewed TV channel in the USA, they certainly understand what ‘fake news’ is, and they know that Fox News, along with other media, deliberately spreads it – presumably for political and economic reasons.
In this case, it was clearly aimed at scaring viewers into fearing the word “socialism” and the Democratic Party in the USA, thereby encouraging viewers to vote for the conservative Republican Party.
Subsequently, this TV host was fired (Danish link) because the timing of the lies she spread no longer aligned with the leadership at Fox News, which had recently reversed its stance on the Covid-19 pandemic.
Fox News management had stopped calling the pandemic “a political stunt by the Democratic Party” and had started taking the pandemic more seriously. The TV host had simply not noticed this shift and continued spreading the old lies … and since they could not have a host contradicting Fox News leadership, she had to be fired.
Most recently, Fox News agreed to pay 5.4 billion kroner to settle a lawsuit over the spread of lies about the “stolen election” in the USA in 2020.
Media Theorists
Theorists who have focused on the role of media in conflicts include Noam Chomsky (Wikipedia page here), Marshall McLuhan (Wikipedia page here), Edward S. Herman, and George Gerbner.
Theories About Conflict Management and Conflict Seen Through Game Theory, Especially Cooperation Theory and Win-Win Theory
Game theory – which was developed towards the end of World War II – was first described in the now classic book ‘Theory of Games and Economic Behavior’ (1944), written by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern.
Game theory essentially stems from (neo)classical economic theory, meaning it is highly focused on gain versus loss and operates under the assumption that everyone aims to maximize their own benefits. (Which, of course, is a limited perspective).
However, game theory has the advantage over the aforementioned theories in psychology, biology, sociology, power, economics, gender, etc., in that it largely ignores them all and takes a rather neutral view of both choices / decisions and actions (interactions), by simply comparing one type of choice and action with another and examining the outcome.
This gives game theory a somewhat unique, cool, and therefore interesting perspective.
A Fundamental Question in Game Theory: What Is Best? Cheating and Fighting or Cooperation?
A classic question in game theory might be: “Do you gain more by trying to cheat and fight against others (= ‘win’ over them), or by cooperating with them?”
Theories and computer models have been developed to find answers to such questions, and the answers turn out to be nuanced, yet simple and intuitively understandable — things are as most of us already know they are.
In short:
Attempting to “win” over others by cheating and fighting can provide a short-term gain, especially if you never have to interact with them (or anyone they are connected with) again.
Such a situation does exist, but it is actually not what one would call natural. If you cheat others or do something else unpleasant to them, you might end up having to move to another city or even another country.
In an increasingly globalized world, this is a losing strategy, for in the end, you might end up having to relocate to another planet … and that, after all, is unlikely to be an option in the near future.
Answer: Cooperation and Win-Win Are Best
Cooperation, as described in cooperative game theory, provides a gain that is slightly smaller than the one-time gain from cheating and fighting others, but cooperation yields this gain repeatedly.
This means that, in the long run, cooperation is clearly the best solution.
Stephen R. Covey‘s now classic bestseller on habits for success, ‘The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People’ focuses on principles such as fairness, integrity, honesty, and human dignity. The fourth habit, which Covey believes successful people have, is to focus on creating situations and solutions that benefit EVERYONE.
This is part of game theory, known as win-win theory, and is a good place to start all conflict resolution situations and to remember throughout the process: A solution should provide everyone with what they actually need.
Conclusion on Game Theory
All these insights from game theory are entirely logical and sensible, and therefore worth keeping in mind when discussing conflicts:
It is clearly more beneficial for all parties NOT to create or maintain conflict, but rather to find common ground, cooperate, and create win-win situations!
A fantastic and completely objective argument for resolving all conflicts.
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Other Pages Related to This Topic
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The Conflict Escalation Model |
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